The model provides a framework for understanding the environmental sensitivity of marine calcifiers, past mass extinctions, and resilience in 21st century acidifying oceans. In this review, we combine CaCO 3 skeleton formation mechanisms with constraints from evolutionary history, omics, and a meta-analysis of isotopic data to develop a plausible model for CaCO 3 biomineralization applicable to all phyla. Biomineralization evolved independently but convergently across phyla, suggesting a unity of mechanism that transcends biological differences. An integrated understanding of carbonate biomineralization is necessary to illuminate this evolutionary record and to understand how modern organisms will respond to 21st century global change. Both marine diversification and mass extinctions reflect physiological responses to environmental changes through time. Calcium carbonate (CaCO 3) biomineralizing organisms have played major roles in the history of life and the global carbon cycle during the past 541 Ma.
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